Job satisfaction among expatriate academics at China’s offshore campuses

Post-COVID challenges and cross-cultural dynamics

Authors

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.32674/f32efw39

Keywords:

cultural adaptation, expatriate academics, job satisfaction, Post-COVID Education, faculty-student interactions, transnational education, virtual learning, culture shock, language barriers, faculty retention

Abstract

This qualitative study examines job satisfaction among 33 expatriate faculty members teaching Chinese international students at China’s offshore campuses. Through thematic analysis of semistructured interviews and institutional documents framed by Herzberg’s two-factor theory, this research explores the effects of cultural adaptation, faculty‒student interactions, and post-COVID-19 institutional dynamics on faculty well-being. The findings revealed that long-term emotional bonds with students were the strongest motivators. In contrast, language barriers, perceived student passivity, and subtle grade-related pressures from influential families acted as powerful hygiene stressors. An “autonomy-support paradox” was evident: institutional support (e.g., language courses, mentorship) coexisted with centralized governance that restricted academic freedom, thereby intensifying dissatisfaction. Post-COVID-19 virtual/hybrid teaching further amplified intercultural miscommunication and disengagement. Unlike prior work focused on general faculty satisfaction, this study addresses underexplored gaps in non-Western transnational education, offering practical strategies to increase expatriate retention and enrich the learning environment for Chinese international students on offshore campuses.

Author Biography

  • Liam P. Duffy, Wenzhou-Kean University, China

    LIAM DUFFY, EdD, is a Lecturer in the Curriculum and Instruction (MATESOL) Department, College of Education, at Wenzhou-Kean University, China. His primary research interests include the recruitment and retention of international faculty at English-medium instruction (EMI) universities, job satisfaction, and organizational support. Additionally, he is interested in language learning, student success, and test-taking strategies for both Chinese learners of English and expatriate academics aiming to learn Mandarin. Email: liampaulduffy@gmail.com

References

Ababneh, K. I. (2020). Effects of met expectations, trust, job satisfaction, and commitment on faculty turnover intentions in the United Arab Emirates (UAE). The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 31(2), 303–334. APA PsycInfo. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2016.1255904 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2016.1255904

Alemu, D. S., & Pykhtina, O. (2020). To leave or to stay: Faculty mobility in the Middle East. International Journal of Education Policy & Leadership, 16(1), 1–18. Education Source. https://doi.org/10.22230/ijepl.2020v16n1a895 DOI: https://doi.org/10.22230/ijepl.2020v16n1a895

Arokiasamy, A. R. A. (2021). The uncharted territory: Plotting the relationships between perceived organizational support, work engagement and expatriate retention in Vietnam. Journal of Asia-Pacific Business, 22(3), 201–225. https://doi.org/10.1080/10599231.2021.1943809 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10599231.2021.1943809

Bhuian, S. N. (2016). Sustainability of Western branch campuses in the Gulf Region: Students’ perspectives of service quality. International Journal of Educational Development, 49, 314–323. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2016.05.001 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2016.05.001

Bi, X. (2025). Fostering inclusive learning environments through culturally responsive pedagogy for international students in U.S. higher education. Journal of International Students, 15(6), 21–38. https://doi.org/10.32674/bd7brj48 DOI: https://doi.org/10.32674/bd7brj48

Braun Střelcová, A., Cai, Y., & Shen, W. (2023). The Experience of European Researchers in China: A Comparative Capital Advantage Perspective. Journal of the Knowledge Economy, 14(3), 2663–2691. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13132-022-00982-3 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13132-022-00982-3

Breaden, J., Do, T. T. Q., dos Anjos-Santos, L. M., & Normand-Marconnet, N. (2025). Does internationalisation at a distance democratise student mobility? Critical insights from the Asia-Pacific region. British Journal of Educational Technology, 56(2), 852–869. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.13541 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.13541

Buckner, E., Lumb, P., Jafarova, Z., Kang, P., Marroquin, A., & Zhang, Y. (2021). Diversity without Race: How University Internationalization Strategies Discuss International Students. Journal of International Students, 11, 32–49. DOI: https://doi.org/10.32674/jis.v11iS1.3842

Cen, Y. (2018). Teaching for developmental growth: Learning partnerships and student development in graduate education in China. Teaching in Higher Education, 23(1), 30–46. https://doi.org/10.1080/13562517.2017.1359156 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13562517.2017.1359156

Chen, J., & Zhu, J. (2022). False anticipation and misfits in a cross-cultural setting: International scholars working in Chinese universities. Journal of Studies in International Education, 26(3), 352–368. https://doi.org/10.1177/1028315320976039 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1028315320976039

Chen, K.-D. (2017). Relationship between different combinations of personality traits and motivation mechanism: Change leadership as mediator. The Asia-Pacific Education Researcher, 26(6), 317–328. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40299-017-0351-4 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40299-017-0351-4

Deuchar, A. (2023). International Students and the Politics of Vulnerability. Journal of International Students, 13(2), 206–211. https://doi.org/10.32674/jis.v13i2.4815 DOI: https://doi.org/10.32674/jis.v13i2.4815

Doherty, N., Richardson, J., & Thorn, K. (2013). Self‐initiated expatriation and self‐initiated expatriates: Clarification of the research stream. Career Development International, 18(1), 97–112. https://doi.org/10.1108/13620431311305971 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/13620431311305971

Duffy, L. P. (2023). Exploring expatriate academics’ perceptions of job satisfaction relating to organizational support at international branch campuses in China [Doctoral dissertation, Abilene Christian University]. https://digitalcommons.acu.edu/etd/668 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3102/2102503

Faculty handbook. (2020). Wenzhou-Kean University. www.wku.edu.cn

Faculty handbook. (2022). Wenzhou-Kean University. www.wku.edu.cn

Faculty handbook. (2025). Wenzhou-Kean University. www.wku.edu.cn

Gao, Y., & Liu, J. (2021). Capitalising on academics’ transnational experiences in the domestic research environment. Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management, 43(4), 400–414. https://doi.org/10.1080/1360080X.2020.1833276 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/1360080X.2020.1833276

Greenier, V., & Connor, A. (2025). 14 exploring the wellbeing and identity of EMI lecturers at a UK university’s international branch campus. In A. Feryok (Ed.), Language Teacher Identity and Wellbeing (pp. 229–248). Multilingual Matters. https://doi.org/10.21832/9781800417038-018 DOI: https://doi.org/10.21832/9781800417038-018

Guidelines for managing foreign experts. (2023). Wenzhou-Kean University. www.wku.edu.cnen/zhiduyufagui

Hagedorn, L. S. (2000). Conceptualizing Faculty Job Satisfaction: Components, Theories, and Outcomes. New Directions for Institutional Research, 2000(105), 5–20. Professional Development Collection. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/ir.10501

Hammoudi Halat, D., Soltani, A., Dalli, R., Alsarraj, L., & Malki, A. (2023). Understanding and fostering mental health and well-being among university faculty: A narrative review. Journal of Clinical Medicine, 12(13), 1–28. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm12134425 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm12134425

Heng, T. T. (2020). “Chinese students themselves are changing.” Journal of International Students, 10(2), 539–545. https://doi.org/10.32674/jis.v10i2.958 DOI: https://doi.org/10.32674/jis.v10i2.958

Herzberg, F. L. (1966). Work and the nature of man. World.

Herzberg, F. L., Mausner, B., & Snyderman, B. B. (1959). The motivation to work (2nd ed.). Wiley.

Hoy, W., & Miskel, C. (2012). Educational administration: Theory, research, and practice (9th ed.). McGraw-Hill.

Huang, F., & Chen, L. (2024). Adapting to transformative global contexts: A new era for internationalization in higher education and research. ECNU Review of Education, 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1177/20965311241276539 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/20965311241276539

Huang, F., Daizen, T., & Kim, Y. (2019). Challenges facing international faculty at Japanese universities: Main findings from the 2017 national survey. International Journal of Educational Development, 71, 102103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2019.102103 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2019.102103

Huang, L., Zhang, W., Jiang, H., & Wang, J.-L. (2023). The Teaching Quality Evaluation of Chinese-Foreign Cooperation in Running Schools from the Perspective of Education for Sustainable Development. Sustainability, 15(3), Article 3. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15031975 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/su15031975

International Campuses. (2025). C-BERT. https://www.cbert.org/intl-campus

Kang, Y. (2019). Institutional social capital and Chinese international branch campus: A case study from students’ perspectives. In D. E. Neubauer, K. H. Mok, & S. Edwards (Eds.), Contesting Globalization and Internationalization of Higher Education (pp. 163–178). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-26230-3_12 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-26230-3_12

Kim, Y., Song, I., & Miyoshi, N. (2024). International academics in national research institutes in Korea and Japan: Contributions, reasons for migration, and challenges. Asia Pacific Education Review. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12564-024-09925-w DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12564-024-09925-w

King, C. S. T., & Bailey, K. S. (2021). Intercultural communication and US higher education: How US students and faculty can improve: International students’ classroom experiences. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 82, 278–287. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2021.04.007 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2021.04.007

Kleibert, J. M., Schulze, M. P., Rottleb, T., & Bobée, A. (2023). (Trans)regional embeddedness and the resilience of offshore campuses. Regional Studies, Regional Science, 10(1), 23–32. https://doi.org/10.1080/21681376.2022.2157323 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/21681376.2022.2157323

Lane, J., Schueller, J., & Farrugia, C. (2025). What is an ‘international student’ in transnational higher education? Critical Internationalization Studies Review, 4(1). https://doi.org/10.70531/2832-3211.1044 DOI: https://doi.org/10.70531/2832-3211.1044

Lee, J. T., & Kuzhabekova, A. (2018). Reverse flow in academic mobility from core to periphery: Motivations of international faculty working in Kazakhstan. Higher Education, 76(2), 369–386. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-017-0213-2 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-017-0213-2

Li, M., & Huang, F. (2024). The experiences of international researchers in Japanese companies: A graduate capital perspective. ECNU Review of Education, 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1177/20965311241256366 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/20965311241256366

Liu, L., & Coates, H. (2024). International education hubs: A comparative study of China’s Greater Bay Area and established hubs. Higher Education Quarterly, 78(4), e12556. https://doi.org/10.1111/hequ.12556 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/hequ.12556

Maslow, A. H. (1954). Motivation and personality (1st ed.). Harper.

Mok, K. H. (2021a). Education market with the Chinese characteristics: The rise of minban and transnational higher education in China. Higher Education Quarterly, 75(3), 398–417. https://doi.org/10.1111/hequ.12323 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/hequ.12323

Mok, K. H. (2021b). Managing neo-liberalism with Chinese characteristics: The rise of education markets and Higher education governance in China. International Journal of Educational Development, 84, 102401. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2021.102401 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2021.102401

Morris, G. R. (2020). Investigating the employment motivation and job satisfaction of expatriate language teachers [Doctoral dissertation, University of Exeter]. [Open Research Exeter]. https://ore.exeter.ac.uk/repository/handle/10871/124311?show=full

Nasser Al-Tamimi, N., & Abdullateef, S. T. (2023). Towards smooth transition: Enhancing participation of expatriates in academic context. Cogent Social Sciences, 9(1), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311886.2023.2185986 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/23311886.2023.2185986

Nowell, B., & Albrecht, K. (2019). A reviewer’s guide to qualitative rigor. Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, 29(2), 348–363. https://doi.org/10.1093/jopart/muy052 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/jopart/muy052

Nuralieva, N., Wei, Z., AL-Qadri, A. H., Saraa, N., & Chang, M. (2024). Students’ beliefs, basic psychological needs, classroom participation, foreign language anxiety, and academic adjustment: A correlation study in Tashkent, Uzbekistan. Heliyon, 10(18), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e37127 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e37127

Oladipo, O. A., Dai, K., & Liang, C. W. Y. (2024). Experiencing transnational dual degree programs in China: An exploration of international students’ motivation: Studies in Higher Education: Vol 49, No 11. Studies in Higher Education, 49(11), 2052–2065. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2023.2288662

Przytula, S. (2023). Expatriate academics: What have we known for four decades? A systematic literature review. Journal of Global Mobility: The Home of Expatriate Management Research, 12(1), 31–56. https://doi.org/10.1108/JGM-03-2023-0024 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/JGM-03-2023-0024

Qu, L., & Dai, Y. (2024). Education hubs in a globalized world: The emergence of China. International Journal of Educational Development, 104, 102959. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2023.102959 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2023.102959

Ramalu, S. S., & Subramaniam, C. (2019). Cultural intelligence and work engagement of expatriate academics: The role of psychological needs satisfaction. International Journal of Cross Cultural Management, 19(1), 7–26. APA PsycInfo. https://doi.org/10.1177/1470595819827992 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1470595819827992

Si, H., & Rayner, S. (2025). Exploring institutional governance dynamics in China’s transnational higher education (TNHE): A study of Sino-foreign joint institutes. Cogent Education, 12(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2025.2450124 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2025.2450124

Spector, P. E. (1997). Job satisfaction: Application, assessment, causes, and consequences (Vol. 3). Sage. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4135/9781452231549

Stoermer, S., Lauring, J., & Selmer, J. (2022). Job characteristics and perceived cultural novelty: Exploring the consequences for expatriate academics’ job satisfaction. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 33(3), 417–443. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2019.1704824 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2019.1704824

Thomas, D. R. (2006). A general inductive approach for analyzing qualitative evaluation data. American Journal of Evaluation, 27(2), 237–246. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098214005283748 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1098214005283748

Tran, N. H. N., Amado, C. A. D. E. F., & Santos, S. P. D. (2023). Challenges and success factors of transnational higher education: A systematic review. Studies in Higher Education, 48(1), 113–136. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2022.2121813 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2022.2121813

Wang, C., & Chiu, Y.-H. (2024). Foreign academic adaptation: Emotional intelligence and resilience perspectives. Asian Journal of Business Research, 14(1), 13–32. https://doi.org/10.14707/ajbr.240163 DOI: https://doi.org/10.14707/ajbr.240163

Wang, S., & Zhang, Y. (2024). ‘Transnational’ and ‘transcultural’: Their divergence and convergence in international higher education. Studies in Higher Education, 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2024.2445758 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2024.2445758

Wilkins, S. (2016). Establishing international branch campuses: A framework for assessing opportunities and risks. Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management, 38(2), 167–182. https://doi.org/10.1080/1360080X.2016.1150547 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/1360080X.2016.1150547

Wilkins, S., & Annabi, C. A. (2023). Academic careers in transnational higher education: The rewards and challenges of teaching at international branch campuses. Journal of Studies in International Education, 27(2), 219–239. https://doi.org/10.1177/10283153211052782 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/10283153211052782

Xia, C., Li, X., & Cao, S. (2023). Challenges for the government-controlled higher education system in China. International Journal of Educational Development, 97, 102721. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2022.102721 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2022.102721

XJTLU-General-Guide-fo-New-Employees. (n.d.). Xi’An Jiaotong Liverpool University. https://www.xjtlu.edu.cn/assets/files/employees/XJTLU-General-Guide-fo-New-Employees.pdf

Yang, P. (2022). China in the global field of international student mobility: An analysis of economic, human and symbolic capitals. Compare: A Journal of Comparative and International Education, 52(2), 308–326. https://doi.org/10.1080/03057925.2020.1764334 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/03057925.2020.1764334

Yang, R., & Welch, A. R. (2010). Globalisation, transnational academic mobility and the Chinese knowledge diaspora: An Australian case study. Discourse: Studies in the Cultural Politics of Education, 31(5), 593–607. https://doi.org/10.1080/01596306.2010.516940 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/01596306.2010.516940

Downloads

Published

2026-02-23

Issue

Vol. 16 No. 5 (2026): Journal of International Students

Section

Special Issue: Rethinking International Education

Categories

License

Copyright (c) 2025 Journal of International Students

Creative Commons License

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.

Copyright (c) [year] [author]
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
This license permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0

How to Cite

Duffy, L. P. (2026). Job satisfaction among expatriate academics at China’s offshore campuses: Post-COVID challenges and cross-cultural dynamics. Journal of International Students, 16(5), 1-22. https://doi.org/10.32674/f32efw39