Reframing international mindedness
A critical review of its role in international
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.32674/8fw0rv70Keywords:
International education, International mindedness, Teacher education, Multicultural education, Preservice teachers, International studentsAbstract
This review critically examines the concept of international mindedness (IM) within the broader discourse of international education. Drawing on a semi-systematic literature review, the study interrogates how IM has been conceptualized, applied, and critiqued across educational contexts. Adopting a critical lens, the review uncovers the predominantly Western-centric orientation of IM and its implications for educational practices and policy in multicultural and global settings. The findings challenge the assumed universality of the concept and call for a more inclusive and context-sensitive understanding of international mindedness. Thematic sections highlight key trends and tensions in the literature, followed by a discussion of implications for teacher education, curriculum design, and the positioning of international students. The review concludes by advocating for a reimagined, pluralistic approach to IM that reflects the realities of global education.
References
Baily, S., & Holmarsdottir, H.B. (2019). Fostering teachers' global competencies: Bridging utopian expectations for internationalization through exchange. FIRE: Forum for International Research in Education, 5(2), 226-244. DOI: https://doi.org/10.32865/fire201952162
Banks, J. A. (1993). Multicultural education: Development, dimensions, and challenges. The Phi Delta Kappan, 75(1), 22-28. https://doi.org/10.2307/20405091
Banks, J. A. (2008). Diversity, group identity, and citizenship education in a global age. Educational Researcher, 37(3), 129-139. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654307310346 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X08317501
Barakat, M. Y., & Brooks, J. S. (2016). When globalization causes cultural conflict. Journal of Cases in Educational Leadership, 19, 15-23. https://doi.org/10.1177/1555458916636840 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1555458916672707
Barrett Hacking, E., Blackmore, C., Bullock, K., Bunnell, T., Donnelly, M., & Martin, S. (2017). The international mindedness journey: School practices for developing and accessing international mindedness across the IB continuum. Department of Education, University of Bath & International Baccalaureate Organization.
Barrett Hacking, E., Blackmore, C., Bullock, K., Bunnell, T., Donnelly, M. & Martin, S. (2018). International mindedness in practice: The evidence from International Baccalaureate schools. Journal of Research in International Education, 17(1), 3–16. Online. https://doi.org/10.1177/1475240918764722.
Barret Hacking, B., & Taylor, C. (2020). Reconceptualizing international mindedness in and for a posthuman world. The International Journal of Development Education and Global Learning, 12(2), 133-151. https://doi.org/10.14324/IJDEGL.12.2.05 DOI: https://doi.org/10.14324/IJDEGL.12.2.05
Beek, A. E. (2019). An integral analysis of international mindedness. In V. Bohac Clarke (Ed.), Integral theory and transdisciplinary action research in education (pp. 65-86). IGI Global. https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-5225-5873-6.ch004 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-5225-5873-6.ch004
Bista, K. (2016). (Re)examining the research on international students: Where are we today? Journal of International Students, 6(20), I–X. http://jistudents.org/ DOI: https://doi.org/10.32674/jis.v6i2.360
Bittencourt, T. (2020). Social class and the construction of international mindedness: A comparative study of International Baccalaureate schools in Ecuador. Journal of Research in International Education, 19(2), 91–105. https://doi.org/10.1177/1475240920954046 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1475240920954046
Bittencourt, T., & Bustamante Callejas, G. (2023). International education and the rise of paleoconservative thought: Mapping the growth of the International Baccalaureate in the United States along county-level voting patterns. Discourse: Studies in the Cultural Politics of Education, 45(1), 14–28. https://doi.org/10.1080/01596306.2023.2219985 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/01596306.2023.2219985
Budrow, J. (2021). Being and becoming internationally minded: Snapshots of novice Canadian teachers in international schools. Journal of Research in International Education, 20(3), 211–225. https://doi.org/10.1177/14752409211060137 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/14752409211060137
Bunnell, T. (2007). The international education industry: An introductory framework for conceptualizing the potential scale of an ‘alliance’ Copenhagen International School. Journal of Research in International Education, 6(3), 349–367. https://doi.org/10.1177/1475240907083201 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1475240907083201
Bunnell, T. (2008). International education and the ‘second phase’: A framework for conceptualizing its nature and for the future assessment of its effectiveness. Compare, 38(4), 415-426. https://doi.org/10.1080/03057920701420841 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/03057920701420841
Bunnell, T. (2019). Developing and institutionalizing the ‘Internationally Minded School’: The role of the ‘Numerous Fs’. Journal of Research in International Education, 18(2), 186–198. https://journals.sagepub.com/home/jri DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1475240919865792
Cambridge, J., & Thompson, J. (2004). Internationalism and globalization as contexts for international education. Compare, 34(2), 161-175. https://doi.org/10.1080/0305792042000200560 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/0305792042000213994
Carano, K. T. (2010). Through the lens of a global educator: Examining personal perceptions regarding the construction of world-mindedness (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of South Florida. Graduate Theses and Dissertations. Available at https://digitalcommons.usf.edu/etd/3568
Castillo-Clark, K. (2018). International mindedness: Phenomenological inquiry into teacher candidate experiences (10688977) (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). The Graduate School of Education, Loyola University Chicago. ProQuest Dissertations, 2783. Available at https://ecommons.luc.edu/luc_diss/2783
Castro, P., Lundgren, U., & Woodin, J. (2013). Conceptualizing and assessing international mindedness (IM): An exploratory study (Research report). International Baccalaureate Organization. Available at: http://ibo.org/globalassets/publications/if-research/imeufullreportfinal.pdf
Castro, P., Lundgren, U., & Woodin, J. (2015). International mindedness through the looking glass: Reflections on a concept. Journal of Research in International Education, 14(3), 187–197. https://doi.org/10.1177/1475240915614202 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1475240915614202
Cause, L. (2012, April). The development of international mindedness in an Australian primary school (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Deakin University, Australia. https://dro.deakin.edu.au/view/DU:30056581
Chan, W. W., & Dimmock, C. (2008). The internationalization of universities: Globalist, internationalist, and translocalist models. Journal of Research in International Education, 7(2), 184-204. https://doi.org/10.1177/1475240908094450 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1475240908091304
Dewey, N. (2017). International mindedness: Conceptualizations and curriculum in an international school in Brazil (Published doctoral dissertation). University Digital Conservancy, University of Minnesota. Available at https://hdl.handle.net/11299/188850
Elerian, M., & Solomou, E. A. (2022). International schools, international mindedness, and the development of global citizenship: Reflections from a case study of international schools in Cyprus. Prospects. Available at https://doi.org/10.1007/s11125-021-09585-3 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11125-021-09585-3
Erbaş, Y. H. (2019). A qualitative case study of multicultural education in Turkey: Definitions of multiculturalism and multicultural education. International Journal of Progressive Education, 15(1), 23-43. https://doi.org/10.29329/ijpe.2019.184.2 DOI: https://doi.org/10.29329/ijpe.2019.184.2
Goodwin, A. L. (2010). Globalization and the preparation of quality teachers: Rethinking knowledge domains for teaching. Teaching Education, 21(1), 19–32. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10476210903466901
Gultekin, O. (2025). Navigating the intersection of international politics and international education: A historical and contemporary analysis. Journal of International Students, 15(2). https://doi.org/10.32674/4vqsg045 DOI: https://doi.org/10.32674/4vqsg045
Habib, Z. (2018). International mindedness and intercultural competence: Perceptions of Pakistani higher education faculty. Journal of Education and Educational Development, 5(1), 60-79. DOI: https://doi.org/10.22555/joeed.v5i1.1807
Harwood, R., & Bailey, K. (2012). Defining and evaluating international-mindedness in a school context. International Schools Journal, 31(2), 77–86. https://education4internationmindednesssais.weebly.com/uploads/3/1/3/4/31348255/april_2012_isj.pdf
Haywood, T. (2007). A simple typology of international-mindedness and its implications for education. In M. Hayden, J. Levy, & J. Thompson (Eds.), The SAGE Handbook of Research in International Education (pp. 79-89). SAGE Publications. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4135/9781848607866.n8
Hébert, Y., & Abdi, A. A. (Eds.). (2013). Critical perspectives on international education. Sense Publishers. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-6091-906-0
Hill, I. (2015). The history and development of international mindedness. In M. Hayden, J. Levy, & J. Thompson (Eds.), The SAGE Handbook of Research in International Education (2nd ed., pp. 28-44). SAGE Publications. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4135/9781473943506.n3
Hill, I. (2012). Evolution of education for international mindedness. Journal of Research in International Education, 11(3), 245–261. https://doi.org/10.1177/1475240912461990 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1475240912461990
International Baccalaureate. (2007). International Baccalaureate: A continuum of international education. Cardiff: International Baccalaureate Organization. Available at: https://www.ibo.org/globalassets/digital-toolkit/brochures/ib-continuum-brochure-en.pdf
International Baccalaureate. (2008). Toward a continuum of international education. International Baccalaureate Organization.
International Baccalaureate. (2009). The Diploma Programme: A basis for practice. Cardiff: International Baccalaureate Organization. Available at: http://www.ohioib.org/DP_basis_for_practice.pdf
International Baccalaureate. (2011). The IB diploma programme: Statistical bulletin.
International Baccalaureate. (2013). What is an IB education? International Baccalaureate Organization.
International Baccalaureate. (2021). 2021 and 2022: Learning, teaching, and assessment. Guidance for schools on the 2021 and 2022 adapted assessment. International Baccalaureate Organization.
International Baccalaureate. (n.d.). International-mindedness. International Baccalaureate. Available at: http://peirce.cps.edu/uploads/9/2/4/1/92417616/p2p_-the_learning_community-_international_mindedness.pdf
Irayanti, I., Sapriya, S., Suryadi, K., Komalasari, K., & Hastowohadi. (2025). A narrative inquiry of international students' experiences in Indonesia: Language appraisal and transitivity analysis. Journal of International Students, 15(2), 87–107. https://doi.org/10.32674/v6nmpj51 DOI: https://doi.org/10.32674/v6nmpj51
Jurasaite-O'Keefe, E. (2022). Defining and cultivating international mindedness: Perceptions and perspectives of students in the International Baccalaureate Middle Years Program. RMLE Online: Research in Middle Level Education, 45(2), 1-17. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/19404476.2022.2024067
Lai, C., Shum, M. S. K., & Zhang, B. (2014). International mindedness in an Asian context: The case of the International Baccalaureate in Hong Kong. Educational Research, 56(1), 77-96. https://doi.org/10.1080/00131881.2013.874159 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00131881.2013.874159
Lucas, T., & Villegas, A. M. (2011). A framework for preparing linguistically responsive teachers. In Teacher preparation for linguistically diverse classrooms: A resource for teacher educators (pp. 55-72). Taylor and Francis. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203843239
Marshal, H. (2007). The global education terminology debate: Exploring some of the issues. In M. Hayden, J. Levy, & J. Thompson (Eds.), The SAGE Handbook of Research in International Education. SAGE Publications. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4135/9781848607866.n4
Martin, S. (2018). International mindedness in practice: The evidence from international baccalaureate schools. Journal of Research in International Education, 17(1), 3–16. https://doi.org/10.1177/1475240918764722 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1475240918764722
Metli, A., & Lane, J. F. (2020). International Mindedness: A Revised Conceptual Framework. Journal of Research in International Education, 19(3), 202-219. https://doi.org/10.1177/1475240920976229 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1475240920976229
Metli, A., Martin, R. A., & Lane, J. F. (2018). Forms of support and challenges to developing international-mindedness: A comparative case study within a national and an international school in Turkey. Compare: A Journal of Comparative and International Education, 49(6), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1080/03057925.2018.1490889 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/03057925.2018.1490889
Palmer, N. (2024). To sing alone, to sing in chorus: Mediating education for International Baccalaureate international mindedness and neo-liberal subjectivity. Globalization, Societies and Education, 22(4), 592–604. https://doi.org/10.1080/14767724.2024.XXXXXX DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/14767724.2022.2127405
Polat, S., & Guler, P. H. (2020). Multiculturalism in social studies education programs (2005-2018): A qualitative study. Educational Policy Analysis and Strategic Research, 15(3), 267-289. https://doi.org/10.29329/epasr.2020.270.13 DOI: https://doi.org/10.29329/epasr.2020.270.13
Savva, M., & Stanfield, D. (2015). International-mindedness: Deviations, incongruities and other challenges facing the concept. Journal of Research in International Education, 17(2), 179–193. https://doi.org/10.1177/1475240918793954 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1475240918793954
Schreiber, B. (2024). Competing Global South and Global North knowledge sets contending for dominance in the post-Covid-19 higher education space: Expanding hegemonies or generating authentic reciprocity? Journal of International Students, 14(2), i-iv. https://doi.org/10.32674/jis.v14i2.6389 DOI: https://doi.org/10.32674/jis.v14i2.6389
Singh, M., & Qi, J. (2013). 21st century international-mindedness: An exploratory study of its conceptualization and assessment. International Baccalaureate Organization.
Syeda, M. (2017). Fostering international mindedness in International Baccalaureate classrooms: A case study of two teachers (Unpublished Master's thesis). Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers, 10939. https://scholarworks.umt.edu/etd/10939
VanAlistine, S. K., & Holmes, A. V. (2016). Development of international mindedness and preferences for world music in teacher preparation coursework. Journal of Education and Training Studies, 4(11), 194-205. http://jets.redf/ DOI: https://doi.org/10.11114/jets.v4i11.1874
Wasner, V. (2016). Critical service learning: A participatory pedagogical approach to global citizenship and international mindedness. Journal of Research in International Education, 15(3), 238–252. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1475240916669026
Wells, J. (2011). International education, values, and attitudes: A critical analysis of the International Baccalaureate (IB) Learner Profile. Journal of Research in International Education, 10(2), 174–188. https://doi.org/10.1177/1475240911407808 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1475240911407808
Wolf, B., Schmohl, T., Buhin, L., & Stricker, M. (Eds.). (2023). From splendid isolation to global engagement: Exploring internationalization in higher education. WBV Media. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3278/9783763975693
Wright, K., & Buchanan, E. (2017). Education for international mindedness: Life history reflections on schooling and the shaping of a cosmopolitan outlook. Current Issues in Comparative Education, 20(1), 68-83.
Zhang, O., & Cao, Y. (2024). The evolution and discourse of higher education internationalization since the 21st century: Controversies, criticisms and current trends. Cogent Education, 11(1), 1-17, DOI: 10.1080/2331186X.2024.2400443 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2024.2400443
Zhang, L. (2024). “I want to know more about the world”: A case study of international-mindedness as a means of professional development for music teachers in China. International Journal of Music Education, 42(3), 394-408. https://doi.org/10.1177/02557614231174032 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/02557614231174032
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
Categories
License
Copyright (c) 2025 Journal of International Students

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
Copyright (c) [year] [author]
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
This license permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0












