Chinese University Students’ Intercultural Competence
Reconceptualization and Assessment
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.32674/jis.v14i3.5593Keywords:
intercultural competence, measurement validation, reconceptualization, Chinese university students, 21st century skillAbstract
Intercultural competence (IC) is considered as an essential soft skill for successful functioning in the globalized society in the 21st century. However, there is still a lack of culturally appropriate framework and instrument to understand and assess Chinese university students’ IC development. The purpose of this study was to design a valid and reliable scale for assessing Chinese students’ IC. Based on the AAA (Approach-Analyze-Act)-Chinese framework, a 30-item Intercultural Competence Scale-Chinese Version (ICS-CHN) was developed and validated with confirmatory factor analysis. Subsequent multigroup confirmatory factor analysis model further proved the measurement invariance of ICS-CHN in different gender groups. Together with its adequate reliability, convergent and discriminant validity, it is reasonable to conclude that ICS-CHN is a reliable and valid scale, corroborating that IC is a combination of affective/attitudinal, cognitive and behavioral skills and characteristics applied in intercultural encounters.
References
Ang, S., Van Dyne, L., Koh, C., Ng, K.Y., Templer, K.J., Tay, C., & Chandrasekar, N.A. (2007). Cultural intelligence: Its measurement and effects on cultural judgment and decision making, cultural adaptation, and task performance. Management and Organization Review, 3(3), 335-371.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1740-8784.2007.00082.x
Arasaratnam, L. A. (2009). The development of a new instrument of intercultural communication competence. Journal of Intercultural Communication, 20(2), 5-16.
Arasaratnam, L. A., & Doerfel, M. L. (2005). Intercultural communication competence: Identifying key components from multicultural perspectives. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 29(2), 137-163.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2004.04.001
Beechler, S., & Javidan, M. (2007). Leading with a global mindset. In M. Javidan, R. M. Steers, & M. A. Hitt (Eds.), Advances in international management: The global mindset (pp. 131-169). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1571-5027(07)19006-9
Bird, A., & Osland, J. S. (2004). Global competencies: An introduction. In H. W. Lane, M. L. Maznevski, M. E. Mendenhall, & J. McNett (Eds.), The Blackwell handbook of global management: A guide to managing complexity (pp. 57-80). Blackwell.
https://doi.org/10.1111/b.9780631231936.2004.00005.x
Briones, E., Tabernero, C., Tramontano, C., Caprara, G. V., & Arenas, A. (2009). Development of a cultural self-efficacy scale for adolescents (CSES-A). International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 33(4), 301-312.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2009.03.006
Brislin, R. W. (1970). Back-translation for cross-cultural research. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 1, 185-216.
https://doi.org/10.1177/135910457000100301
Brown, T. A. (2015). Confirmatory Factor Analysis for applied research (2nd Edition). Guilford.
Brown, T. A., & Moore, M. T. (2023). Confirmatory factor analysis. In R. H. Hoyle (Ed.), Handbook of structural equation modeling (2nd ed, pp. 261-276). Guilford.
Byram, M. (1997). Teaching and assessing intercultural communicative competence. Multilingual Matters.
Byrne, B. M., Shavelson, R. J., & Muthén, B. (1989). Testing for the equivalence of factor covariance and mean structures: The issue of partial measurement invariance. Psychological Bulletin, 105(3), 456-466.
https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.105.3.456
Cai, D., & Fink, E. (2002). Conflict style differences between individualists and collectivists. Communication Monographs, 69(1), 67-87.
https://doi.org/10.1080/03637750216536
Caligiuri, P., & Tarique, I. (2012). Dynamic cross-cultural competencies and global leadership effectiveness. Journal of World Business, 47(4), 612-622. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jwb.2012.01.014
Chang, H. C. (2001). Harmony as performance: The turbulence under Chinese interpersonal communication. Discourse Studies, 3(2), 155-179.
Chao, T. C. (2014). The development and application of an intercultural competence scale for university EFL learners. English Teaching & Learning, 38(4), 79-124.
Chen, G. M. (2009). Towards transcultural understanding: A harmony theory of Chinese communication. China Media Report Overseas, 5(2), 93-106.
Chen, G. M., & Starosta, W. J. (1996). Intercultural communication competence: A synthesis. Annals of the International Communication Association, 19(1), 353-383. https://doi.org/10.1080/23808985.1996.11678935
Chen, G. M., & Starosta, W. J. (2000). The development and validation of the intercultural sensitivity scale. Human Communication, 3, 1-15.
Cheung, F. M., Kwong, J. Y., & Zhang, J. (2003). Clinical validation of the Chinese personality assessment inventory. Psychological Assessment, 15(1), 89-100.
Cheung, F. M., Leung, K., Fan, R. M., Song, W. Z., Zhang, J. X., & Zhang, J. P. (1996). Development of the Chinese personality assessment inventory. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 27(2), 181-199.
Cheung, G. W., & Rensvold, R. B. (2002). Evaluating goodness-of-fit indexes for testing measurement invariance. Structural Equation Modeling, 9(2), 233-255. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15328007SEM0902_5
Chou, M. L. (1996). Protective and acquisitive face orientation: A person by situation approach to face dynamic in social interaction. University of Hong Kong.
Covert, H. H. (2014). Stories of personal agency: Undergraduate students’ perceptions of developing intercultural competence during a semester abroad in Chile. Journal of Studies in International Education, 18(2), 162-179. https://doi.org/10.1177/1028315313497590
Cronbach, L. J., & Shavelson, R. J. (2004). My current thoughts on coefficient alpha and successor procedures. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 64(3), 391-418. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013164404266386
Dalib, S., Harun, M., & Yusoff, N. (2014). Reconceptualizing intercultural competence: A phenomenological investigation of students’ intercultural experiences. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 155, 130-135.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.10.268
De Gieter, S., Hofmans, J., De Cooman, R., & Pepermans, R. (2009). Measurement invariance of the Pay Satisfaction Questionnaire across gender: Explaining the “contented female worker paradox” more thoroughly. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 69(5), 843-854.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0013164409332216
de Vries, R. E., Bakker-Pieper, A., Konings, F. E., & Schouten, B. (2013). The communication styles inventory (CSI) a six-dimensional behavioral model of communication styles and its relation with personality. Communication Research, 40(4), 506-532. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650211413571
Deardorff, D. K. (2006). Identification and assessment of intercultural competence as a student outcome of internationalization. Journal of Studies in International Education, 10(3), 241-266.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1028315306287002
DeJaeghere, J. G., & Zhang, Y. (2008). Development of intercultural competence among US American teachers: Professional development factors that enhance competence. Intercultural Education, 19(3), 255-268.
https://doi.org/10.1080/14675980802078624
Earley, P. C., & Ang, S. (2003). Cultural intelligence: Individual interactions across cultures. Stanford University Press.
https://doi.org/10.1515/9780804766005
Fang, T., & Faure, G. O. (2011). Chinese communication characteristics: A Yin Yang perspective. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 35(3), 320-333. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2010.06.005
Fornell, C., & Larcker, D. F. (1981). Structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error: Algebra and statistics. Journal of Marketing Research, 18, 382-388.
https://doi.org/10.1177/002224378101800313
Gamst, G., Meyers, L. S., Burke, H., & Guarino, A. J. (2015). Scale development and validation. In G. S. Guest & E. E. Namey (Eds.), Public research methods (pp. 379-409). Sage. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781483398839.n13
Gao, G., & Ting-Toomey, S. (1998). Communicating effectively with the Chinese. Sage Publications.
Griffith, R. L., Wolfeld, L., Armon, B. K., Rios, J., & Liu, O. L. (2016). Assessing intercultural competence in higher education: Existing research and future directions. ETS Research Report Series, 2, 1-44.
https://doi.org/10.1002/ets2.12112
Grimm, S. D., Church, A. T., Katigbak, M. S., & Reyes, J. A. S. (1999). Self-described traits, values, and moods associated with individualism and collectivism: Testing IC theory in an individualistic (US) and a collectivistic (Philippine) culture. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 30(4), 466-500. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022199030004005
Gross, J. J. (1998). The emerging field of emotion regulation: An integrative review. Review of General Psychology, 2(3), 271-299.
https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.2.3.271
Gross, J. J., & John, O. P. (2003). Individual differences in two emotion regulation processes: Implications for affect, relationships, and well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85(2), 348-362.
https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0022-3514.85.2.348
Grossman, R., Thayer, A. L., Shuffler, M. L., Burke, C. S., & Salas, E. (2015). Critical social thinking: A conceptual model and insights for training. Organizational Psychology Review, 5(2), 99-125.
https://doi.org/10.1177/2041386614535423
Gudykunst, W. B. (2002). Handbook of international and intercultural communication. Sage.
Gudykunst, W. B., Matsumoto, Y., Ting-Toomey, S., Nishida, T., Kim, K., & Heyman, S. (1996). The influence of cultural individualism-collectivism, self construals, and individual values on communication styles across cultures. Human Communication Research, 22(4), 510-543.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2958.1996.tb00377.x
Hammer, M. R., Bennett, M. J., & Wiseman, R. (2003). Measuring intercultural sensitivity: The intercultural development inventory. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 27(4), 421-443. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0147-1767(03)00032-4
Haslberger, A., Brewster, C., & Hippler, T. (2013). The dimensions of expatriate adjustment. Human Resource Management, 52(3), 333-351.
https://doi.org/10.1002/hrm.21531
Henseler, J., & Sarstedt, M. (2013). Goodness-of-fit indices for partial least squares path modeling. Computational Statistics, 28(2), 565-580. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00180-012-0317-1
Herman, J. L., Stevens, M. J., Bird, A., Mendenhall, M., & Oddou, G. (2010). The tolerance for ambiguity scale: Towards a more refined measure for international management research. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 34(1), 58-65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2009.09.004
Hinkin, T. R. (1998). A brief tutorial on the development of measures for use in survey questionnaires. Organizational Research Methods, 1(1), 104-121.
https://doi.org/10.1177/109442819800100106
Holmes, P. (2006). Problematising intercultural communication competence in the pluricultural classroom: Chinese students in a New Zealand university. Language and Intercultural Communication, 6(1), 18-34.
https://doi.org/10.1080/14708470608668906
Kim, Y.Y. (2001). Communication and cross-cultural adaptation. Multilingual Matters.
King, P. M., & Magolda, M. B. (2005). A developmental model of intercultural maturity. Journal of College Student Development, 46(6), 571-592. https://doi.org/10.1353/csd.2005.0060
Kline, R. B. (2005). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (2nd ed). Guilford Press.
Leung, K., Brew, F. P., Zhang, Z. X., & Zhang, Y. (2011). Harmony and conflict: A cross-cultural investigation in China and Australia. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 42(5), 795-816.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022110363474
Lin, L. (2020). The visible hand behind study-abroad waves: Cram schools, organizational framing and the international mobility of Chinese students. Higher Education, 79(2), 259-274. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-019-00408-1
Lodder, G. M., Scholte, R. H., Goossens, L., Engels, R. C., & Verhagen, M. (2016). Loneliness and the social monitoring system: Emotion recognition and eye gaze in a real‐life conversation. British Journal of Psychology, 107(1), 135-153. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjop.12131
Lu, C., & Wan, C. (2018). Cultural self-awareness as awareness of culture’s influence on the self: Implications for cultural identification and well-being. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 44(6), 823-837.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167217752117
MacCallum, R. C., Roznowski, M., & Necowitz, L. B. (1992). Model modifications in covariance structure analysis: The problem of capitalization on chance. Psychological Bulletin, 111, 490-504.
https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.111.3.490
McDonald, R. P., & Ho, M. H. R. (2002). Principles and practice in reporting structural equation analyses. Psychological Methods, 7(1), 64-82. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/1082-989X.7.1.64
Messick, S. (1995). Validity of psychological assessment: Validation of inferences from persons’ responses and performances as scientific inquiry into score meaning. American Psychologist, 50(9), 741-749. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0003-066X.50.9.741
Mîndrilã, D. (2010). Maximum likelihood (ML) and diagonally weighted least squares (DWLS) estimation procedures: A comparison of estimation bias with ordinal and multivariate non-normal data. International Journal of Digital Society, 1(1), 60-66.
https://doi.org/10.20533/ijds.2040.2570.2010.0010
OECD. (2017). Student questionnaire for PISA 2018. Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development. Retrieved from
http://www.oecd.org/pisa/data/2018database/CY7_201710_QST_MS_STQ_NoNotes_final.pdf
Peterson, J. C., Milstein, T., Chen, Y. W., & Nakazawa, M. (2011). Self-efficacy in intercultural communication: The development and validation of a sojourners’ scale. Journal of International and Intercultural Communication, 4(4), 290-309. https://doi.org/10.1080/17513057.2011.602476
Reid, P., Sudduth, M., Mokuolu, M., Small, C. Greene-Sands A., & McDonald, D. (2012). A summary of a proposed cross-cultural competence model for the department of defense. Defense Equal Opportunity Management Institute.
Roets, A., & Van Hiel, A. (2011). Item selection and validation of a brief, 15-item version of the Need for Closure Scale. Personality and Individual Differences, 50(1), 90-94. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.09.004
Schmitt, N. (1996). Uses and abuses of coefficient alpha. Psychological Assessment, 8(4), 350-353. https://doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.8.4.350
Solhaug, T., & Kristensen, N. N. (2020). Gender and intercultural competence: Analysis of intercultural competence among upper secondary school students in Denmark and Norway. Educational Psychology, 40(1), 120-140. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2019.1646410
Spitzberg, B., & Changnon, G. (2009). Conceptualizing intercultural competence. In D. K. Deardorff (Ed.), The SAGE handbook of intercultural competence (pp. 477-491). Sage. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781071872987.n1
Succi, C., & Canovi, M. (2020). Soft skills to enhance graduate employability: Comparing students and employers’ perceptions. Studies in Higher Education, 45(9), 1834-1847.
https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2019.1585420
Terrell, S., & Rosenbusch, K. (2013). Global leadership development: What global organizations can do to reduce leadership risk, increase speed to competence, and build global leadership muscle. People and Strategy, 36(1), 40-46.
Ting-Toomey, S., & Kurogi, A. (1998). Facework competence in intercultural conflict: An updated face-negotiation theory. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 22(2), 187-225. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0147-1767(98)00004-2
Triandis, H. C. (2001). Individualism‐collectivism and personality. Journal of Personality, 69(6), 907-924. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-6494.696169
Vandenberg, R. J., & Lance, C. E. (2000). A review and synthesis of the measurement invariance literature: Suggestions, practices, and recommendations for organizational research. Organizational Research Methods, 3(1), 4-69. https://doi.org/10.1177/109442810031002
Wang, C. L., Siu, N. Y., & Barnes, B. R. (2008). The significance of trust and renqing in the long-term orientation of Chinese business-to-business relationships. Industrial Marketing Management, 37(7), 819-824. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indmarman.2008.01.008
Wei, X., & Li, Q. (2013). The Confucian value of harmony and its influence on Chinese social interaction. Cross-Cultural Communication, 9(1), 60-66.
Wen, W., & Hu, D. (2019). The emergence of a regional education hub: Rationales of international students’ choice of China as the study destination. Journal of Studies in International Education, 23(3), 303-325. https://doi.org/rg/10.1177/1028315318797154
Worthington, R. L., & Whittaker, T. A. (2006). Scale development research: A content analysis and recommendations for best practices. The Counseling Psychologist, 34(6), 806-838. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000006288127
Wu, W., Fan, P, & Peng, R. (2013). An analysis of the assessment tool for Chinese college students’ intercultural communicative competence. Foreign Language Teaching and Research. 45(4), 581-592.
Xiao, X. & Chen, G. M. (2012). A Confucian perspective of communication competence. In L. A. Samovar, R. E. Porter & E. R. McDaniel (Eds.), Intercultural communication: A reader (pp. 435-445). Wadsworth.
Yang, K. S. (1993). Chinese social orientation: An integrative analysis. In L. Y. Cheng, F. M. C. Cheung, & C. N. Chen (Eds.), Psychotherapy for the Chinese: Selected papers from the first international conference (pp. 19-56). Chinese University of Hong Kong.
Yu, X., Weiler, B., & Ham, S. (2002). Intercultural communication and mediation: A framework for analysing the intercultural competence of Chinese tour guides. Journal of Vacation Marketing, 8(1), 75-87.
https://doi.org/10.1177/135676670200800108
Zane, N., & Yeh, M. (2002). The use of culturally-based variables in assessment: Studies on loss of face. In K. Kurasaki, S. Okazaki, & S. Sue (Eds.), Asian American mental health (pp. 123-138). Kluwer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-0735-2_9
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2023 Journal of International Students
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
All published articles are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 4.0 Unported License.