Public Discourse and Public Policy on Foreign Interference in Higher Education
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.32674/jcihe.v14i5.4650Keywords:
foreign interference, foreign influence, sharp power, authoritarianism, censorship, espionage, China Initiative, propagandaAbstract
In recent years, news media have increased reporting about alleged foreign interference in universities worldwide. A flurry of new policies has followed. This article reviews discourse and policy on foreign interference in higher education in select countries. It identifies the alleged perpetrators and victims, the victims’ concerns and responses, and the voices shaping the narrative about foreign interference. We combine the concepts of sharp power and right-wing authoritarianism to inform a discourse analysis and comparative policy analysis of a data set of 161 news articles and related media sources spanning a 30-month period of 2019-2021. Our findings highlight how government actors within the United States and Australia drive the international English-language discourse about Chinese foreign interference in a polarized media environment. We observe well-founded fears of China’s exploitation of international students and research collaborations to the detriment of national security. At the same time, a resurgent worldwide authoritarian movement is also exploiting these concerns to augment long-standing assaults on higher education. Our study helps to bridge the gap between the primarily positive framing of the internationalization of higher education in scholarly discourse and the negative focus on foreign interference in higher education in the media, government, and other public discourse. It also serves as an important introduction to this phenomenon and call to action for scholars of the internationalization of higher education to conduct further research and actively engage in the broader discourse around this topic.References
Allen, R., & Bista, K. (2022). Talented, yet seen with suspicion: Surveillance of international students and scholars in the United States. Journal of International Students, 12(1), 175–194. https://doi.org/10.32674/jis.v12i1.3410
Allen-Ebrahimian, B. (2018, March 7). China’s long arm reaches into American campuses. Foreign Policy. https://foreignpolicy.com/2018/03/07/chinas-long-arm-reaches-into-american-campuses-chinese-students-scholars-association-university-communist-party/
American Physical Society. (2021). Impact of US research security policies: US security and the benefits of open science and international collaborations. https://www.aps.org/newsroom/pressreleases/upload/APS-Impact-of-Research-Security-Report.pdf
Antonio, R. (2019). Ethnoracial populism: An alternative to neoliberal globalization. Social Epistemology, 33(4), 280–297. https://doi.org/10.1080/02691728.2019.1638984
Atkinson, C. (2010). Does soft power matter? A comparative analysis of student exchange programs, 1980-2006. Foreign Policy Analysis, 6, 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1743-8594.2009.00099.x
Bailey, M., & Williams, L. (2016). Are college students really liberal? An exploration of student political ideology and attitudes toward policing minorities. The Social Science Journal, 53(3), 309–-317. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.soscij.2016.04.002
Barnett, G., Lee, M., Jiang, K., & Park, H. W. (2016). The flow of international students from a macro perspective: A network analysis. Compare, 46(4), 533–559. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03057925.2015.1015965
Bauder, H. (2020). International mobility and social capital in the academic field. Minerva, 58, 367–387. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11024-020-09401-w
Bedenlier, S., Kondacki, Y., & Zawacki-Richter, O. (2018). Two decades of research into the internationalization of higher education: Themes in the Journal of Studies in International Education, 1997-2016. Journal of Studies in International Education, 22(2), 108-135. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1028315317710093
Berberoglu, B. (Ed.). (2021). The global rise of authoritarianism in the 21st century: Crisis of neoliberal globalization and the nationalist response. Routledge.
Binkley, C. (2020, October 9). US sees ‘malign influence’ in China-backed school program. Associated Press. https://apnews.com/article/politics-mike-pompeo-betsy-devos-china-083992e3357b580a7cc7b2bb81121fc7
Blokker, P. (2021). Populism and illiberalism. In A. Sajó, R. Uitz, & S. Holmes (Eds.), Routledge handbook of illiberalism (1st ed.). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780367260569
Bochner, L. (2020, August 30). China’s influence on our campuses. Australian Strategic Policy Institute. https://www.aspi.org.au/opinion/chinas-influence-our-campuses
Brown, L., & Jones, I. (2013). Encounters with racism and the international student experience. Studies in Higher Education, 38(7), 1004–1019. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2011.614940
Brubaker, R. (2020). Populism and nationalism. Nations and Nationalism, 26(1), 44–66. https://doi.org/10.1111/nana.12522
Buckner, E. (2019). The internationalization of higher education: National interpretations of a global model. Comparative Education Review, 63(3), 315–336. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/703794
CBC News. (2021, May 24). Alberta orders universities to pause partnerships with links to Chinese government. https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/calgary/alberta-government-china-universities-partnership-1.6038701
Changamire, N., Mwangi, C., & Mosselson, J. (2021). International students and the neoliberal marketplace of higher education: The lived experiences of graduate students from sub-Saharan countries in Africa of a U.S. university internationalization policy. Higher Education, 84, 505–521. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-021-00782-9
China Research Group. (2020). Defending democracy in a new world: A toolkit of policy options for responding to a more assertive Chinese Communist Party. https://chinaresearchgroup.org/defending-democracy
Chiu, J. (2021, September 18). A Chinese student in Canada had two followers on Twitter. He still didn’t escape Beijing’s threats over online activity. Toronto Star. https://www.thestar.com/news/canada/2021/09/18/a-chinese-student-in-canada-had-two-followers-on-twitter-he-still-didnt-escape-beijings-threats-over-online-activity.html
Clarke, L. (2021). ‘To educate and liberate?’: Moving from coloniality to postcoloniality in the international branch campus model. Journal of Comparative & International Higher Education, 13(5), 15–35. https://doi.org/10.32674/jcihe.v13i5.3655
Cooley, A., Prelec, T., Heathershaw, J., & Mayne, T. (2021). Paying for a world class affiliation: Reputation laundering in the university sector of open societies [Working paper]. National Endowment for Democracy. https://www.ned.org/reputation-laundering-in-the-university-sector-of-open-societies-working-paper/
Department of Education. (2020). Institutional compliance with Section 117 of the Higher Education Act of 1965. https://www2.ed.gov/policy/highered/leg/institutional-compliance-section-117.pdf
Department of Homeland Security. (2018). Foreign interference taxonomy. https://www.cisa.gov/sites/default/files/publications/19_0717_cisa_foreign-influence-taxonomy.pdf
Department of Justice. (2022, February 23). Assistant Attorney General Matthew Olsen delivers remarks on countering nation-state threats. https://www.justice.gov/opa/speech/assistant-attorney-general-matthew-olsen-delivers-remarks-countering-nation-state-threats
Diamond, L., Plattner, M., Walker, C. (Eds.). Authoritarianism goes global: The challenge to democracy. Johns Hopkins University Press.
Dunn, K., & Neumann, I. (2016). Undertaking discourse analysis for social research. University of Michigan Press.
Economist Intelligence Unit. (2021). Democracy index 2020: In sickness and in health? The Economist. https://www.eiu.com/n/campaigns/democracy-index-2020/
Faizal, M., et al. (2020). Cases of foreign interference in Asia [policy report]. S. Rajaratnam School of International Studies. Nanyang Technological University. https://www.rsis.edu.sg/rsis-publication/cens/cases-of-foreign-interference-in-asia
Freedom House. (2021). Freedom in the world 2021: Democracy under siege. Freedom House. https://freedomhouse.org/sites/default/files/2021-02/FIW2021_World_02252021_FINAL-web-upload.pdf
George, C., Ja Ian, C., Lim, L., & You Yenn, T. (2021, October 10). FICA: Assurances to academics are welcome, but concerns remain. AcademiaSG. https://www.academia.sg/editorials/fica-2/
Ghosh, S., Lee, J., & Haupt, J. (2021). Understanding the attraction of the microcampus: A quantitative investigation of students’ motivations to enroll in transnational education. Journal of Comparative & International Higher Education, 13(5), 53–71. https://doi.org/10.32674/jcihe.v13i5.3679
Golden, D. (2018, July 23). Why Russian spies really like American universities. ProPublica. https://www.propublica.org/article/why-russian-spies-really-like-american-universities
Green, E. (2019, August 30). Universities face federal crackdown over foreign financial influence. New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2019/08/30/us/politics/universities-foreign-donations.html
Gutierrez, R., Le, A., & Teranishi, R. (2021). A racial reckoning: Anti-Asian racism and exclusion in higher education [research brief]. Education Trust-West. https://west.edtrust.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/EducationTrust_2021_ANTI-ASIAN-RACISM-AND-EXCLUSION-IN-HIGHER-EDUCATION-_v5.pdf
Hannas, W., & Tatlow, D. (Eds.). (2021). China’s quest for foreign technology: Beyond espionage. Routledge.
Hofstadter, R. (1963). Anti-intellectualism in American life. Knopf.
Hofstadter, R. (1964, November). The paranoid style in American politics. Harper’s. https://harpers.org/archive/1964/11/the-paranoid-style-in-american-politics/
Human Rights Watch (2020, October 23). Russia: Authorities targeting free speech at a university. https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/10/23/russia-authorities-targeting-free-speech-university
IDEA. (2021). The global state of democracy 2021: Building resilience in a pandemic era. International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance. https://idea.int/gsod/sites/default/files/2021-11/global-state-of-democracy-2021-summary.pdf
Imanaliyeva, A. (2020, October 3). Kyrgyzstan: Dirty tricks come to fore at final election hurdle. Eurasianet. https://eurasianet.org/kyrgyzstan-dirty-tricks-come-to-fore-at-final-election-hurdle.
Institute of International Education. (2022). Open Doors. https://opendoorsdata.org/
Jia, R., Roberts, M. E., Wang, Y., & Yang, E. (2022). The impact of U.S.-China tensions on U.S. science. National Bureau of Economic Research. Working paper 29941. https://www.nber.org/papers/w29941
Kakuchi, S. (2020). Japan steps up protection of research from espionage. University World News. https://www.universityworldnews.com/post.php?story=20201202220022645
Karni, A. (2018, August 8). Trump rants behind closed doors with CEOs. Politico. https://www.politico.com/story/2018/08/08/trump-executive-dinner-bedminster-china-766609
Kauppi, M., & Viotti, P. (2019). International relations theory (6th ed.). Rowman & Littlefield.
Kauppinen, I. & Cantwell, B. (2014). Transnationalization of academic capitalism through global production networks. In B. Cantwell & I. Kauppinen (Eds.), Academic capitalism in the age of globalization (pp. 147-165). Johns Hopkins University Press.
Kauppinen, I., Mathies, C., & Weimer, L. (2014). Developing a conceptual model to study the international student market. In B. Cantwell & I. Kauppinen (Eds.), Academic capitalism in the age of globalization (pp. 246-264). Johns Hopkins University Press.
Kim, A. (2021). Racial disparities in Economic Espionage Act prosecutions: A window into the new Red Scare [White paper]. Committee of 100. https://www.committee100.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/09/Whitepaper-Final-9.21-UPDATE-compressed.pdf
Kupchan, C. (2020). Isolationism: A history of America’s efforts to shield itself from the world. Oxford University Press.
Lee, E. (2019). America for Americans: A history of xenophobia in the United States. Basic Books.
Lee, J. (2015). Soft power and cultural diplomacy: Emerging education hubs in Asia. Comparative Education, 51(3), 353–374. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03050068.2015.1037551
Lee, J. (Ed.). (2021). U.S. power in international higher education. Rutgers University Press.
Lee, J. & Haupt, J. (2020). Winners and losers in US-China scientific research collaborations. Higher Education, 80, 57–74. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-019-00464-7
Lee, J. & Rice, C. (2007). Welcome to America? International student perceptions of discrimination. Higher Education, 53(3), 381–409. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-005-4508-3
Lee, J., & Committee of 100. (2021). Racial profiling among scientists of Chinese descent and consequences for the U.S. scientific community [White paper]. Committee of 100, & University of Arizona. https://www.committee100.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/C100-Lee-Li-White-Paper-FINAL-FINAL-10.28.pdf
Lewis-Kraus, G. (2022, March 14). Have Chinese spies infiltrated American campuses? The New Yorker. https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2022/03/21/have-chinese-spies-infiltrated-american-campuses
Li, C., & McElveen, R. (2020, October 14). The deception and detriment of US-China cultural and educational decoupling. Brookings Institution. https://www.brookings.edu/blog/order-from-chaos/2020/10/14/the-deception-and-detriment-of-us-china-cultural-and-educational-decoupling/
Lloyd-Damnjanovic, A. (2018). A preliminary study of PRC political influence and interference activities in American higher education [White paper]. Kissinger Institute on China and the United States, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars. https://www.wilsoncenter.org/publication/preliminary-study-prc-political-influence-and-interference-activities-american-higher
Lo, W. (2011). Soft power, university rankings and knowledge production: Distinctions between hegemony and self-determination in higher education. Comparative Education, 47(2), 209-–222. https://doi.org/10.1080/03050068.2011.55409
Lo, T., & Pan, S. (2021). The internationalisation of China’s higher education: Soft power with ‘Chinese characteristics.’ Comparative Education, 57(2), 227–246. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03050068.2020.1812235
Lomer, S. (2017). Soft power as a policy rationale for international education in the UK: A critical analysis. Higher Education, 74, 581–598. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-016-0060-6
Luqiu, L. & McCarthy, J. (2019). Confucius Institutes: The successful stealth ‘soft power’ penetration of American universities. The Journal of Higher Education, 90(4), 620–643. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00221546.2018.1541433
Magdaleno, J., & Herron, A. (2021, August 11). Valparaiso University responds to AG's concern China is 'infiltrating' Indiana schools. Indy Star. https://www.indystar.com/story/news/politics/elections/2021/08/11/rokita-investigates-valparaiso-university-over-chinese-propaganda-fear/5566188001/
Mahon, B. (2022, February 6). US Embassy warns TU Dublin about risks of ties with Chinese university. The Sunday Times. https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/us-embassy-warns-tu-dublin-about-risks-of-ties-with-chinese-university-n2zjqcp5s
Mansted, K. (2021). The domestic security grey zone: Navigating the space between foreign influence and foreign interference [Occasional paper]. National Security College, Australian National University. https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/bitstream/1885/227726/1/occasional-paper-domestic-security-foreign-influence-foreign-interference.pdf
Matthews, D. (2020, December 4). French academics fear becoming scapegoats in war on terrorism. Inside Higher Ed. https://www.insidehighered.com/news/2020/12/04/french-academics-fear-being-scapegoated-terrorism
McClory, J. (2019). The soft power 30: A global ranking of soft power 2019. Portland Communications. https://softpower30.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/The-Soft-Power-30-Report-2019-1.pdf
McNeil, S. (2021). ‘They don’t understand the fear we have:’ How China’s long reach of repression undermines academic freedom at Australia’s universities. Human Rights Watch. https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/media_2021/07/australia0621_web.pdf
Meierding, E., & Sigman, R. (2021). Understanding the mechanisms of international influence in an era of great power competition. Journal of Global Security Studies, 6(4), Article ogab011. https://doi.org/10.1093/jogss/ogab011
Merchant, N. (2022, January 10). US delays intelligence center targeting foreign influence. Federal News Network. https://federalnewsnetwork.com/workforce/2022/01/us-delays-intelligence-center-targeting-foreign-influence/
Miller-Idriss, C. (2020). Hate in the homeland: The new global far right. Princeton University Press.
Moffitt, B. (2017). The global rise of populism: Performance, political style, and representation. Stanford University Press.
Mohan, V., & Wall, A. (2019). Foreign electoral interference: Past, present, and future. Georgetown Journal of International Affairs, 20, 110–116. https://doi.org/10.1353/gia.2019.0019
Mudde, C. (2022). The far-right threat in the United States: A European perspective. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 699(1), 101–115. https://doi.org/10.1177/00027162211070060
Murphy, B. (2022, March 20). The US needs a center to counter foreign malign influence at home. Defense One. https://www.defenseone.com/ideas/2022/03/us-needs-center-counter-foreign-malign-influence-home/363366/
Mylonas, H., & Tudor, M. (2021). Nationalism: What we know and what we still need to know. Annual Review of Political Science, 24, 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-polisci-041719-101841
National Defense Authorization Act of 2019, 50 U.S.C. § 3059 - Foreign Malign Influence Response Center. (2019). https://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?req=(title:50%20section:3059%20edition:prelim)
National Security Legislation Amendment Act of 2018, Division 92, Foreign Interference. (2018). https://www.legislation.gov.au/Details/C2018A00067
Nichols, T. (2017). The death of expertise: The campaign against established knowledge and why it matters. Oxford University Press.
Normile, D. (2022, January 20). China falls silent about its recruitment efforts. Science, 375(657B), 255. https://www.science.org/doi/epdf/10.1126/science.ada0235
Nye, J. (1990). Bound to lead: The changing nature of American power. Harper Collins.
Nye, J. (2004). Soft power: The means to success in world politics. PublicAffairs.
Nye, J. (2009). Get smart: Combining hard and soft power. Foreign Affairs, 88(4), 160–163. https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/2009-07-01/get-smart
Nye, J. (2018, November 15). What sharp power? It’s nothing but ‘unsmart’ power. CPD Blog. https://uscpublicdiplomacy.org/blog/what-sharp-power-it%E2%80%99s-nothing-%E2%80%9Cunsmart%E2%80%9D-power
Parker, K. (2019, August 19). The growing partisan divide in views of higher education. Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/social-trends/2019/08/19/the-growing-partisan-divide-in-views-of-higher-education-2/
Peters, M. (2018). The end of neoliberal gloablisation and the rise of authoritarian populism. Educational Philosophy and Theory, 50(4), 323–325. https://doi.org/10.1080/00131857.2017.1305720
Pew Research Center. (2020). In changing U.S. electorate, race and education remain stark dividing lines. Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/politics/2020/06/02/in-changing-u-s-electorate-race-and-education-remain-stark-dividing-lines/
Pew Research Center. (2021). Public trust in government: 1958-2021. Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/politics/2021/05/17/public-trust-in-government-1958-2021/
Radin, B., & Weimer, D. (2018). Compared to what? The multiple meanings of comparative policy analysis. Journal of Comparative Policy Analysis, 20(1), 56–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13876988.2017.1414475
Rainie, L., Keeter, S., & Perrin, A. (2019, July 22). Trust and distrust in America. Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/politics/2019/07/22/how-americans-see-problems-of-trust/
Redden, E. (2018a, August 7). Saudi Arabia to withdraw students from Canada. Inside Higher Ed. https://www.insidehighered.com/news/2018/08/07/saudi-arabia-withdraw-students-canada
Redden, E. (2018b, August 9). Did Trump call most Chinese students spies? Inside Higher Ed. https://www.insidehighered.com/news/2018/08/09/politico-reports-trump-called-most-chinese-students-us-spies
Rohde, A. (2013). Change and continuity in Arab Iraqi education: Sunni and Shi’i discourses in Iraqi textbooks before and after 2003. Comparative Education Review, 57(4), 711–734. https://doi.org/10.1086/671561
Ross, J. (2021, October 22). Academics fear new law in Singapore. Inside Higher Ed. https://www.insidehighered.com/news/2021/10/22/academics-fear-new-law-singapore
Rotella, S. (2021, November 30). Even on U.S. campuses, China cracks down on students who speak out. ProPublica. https://www.propublica.org/article/even-on-us-campuses-china-cracks-down-on-students-who-speak-out
Ruiz, N., Edwards, K., & Lopez, M. (2021, April 21). One-third of Asian Americans fear threats, physical attacks and most say violence is rising against them. Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2021/04/21/one-third-of-asian-americans-fear-threats-physical-attacks-and-most-say-violence-against-them-is-rising/
Sajó, A., Uitz, R., & Holmes, S. (Eds.). (2021). Routledge handbook of illiberalism (1st ed.). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780367260569
Salomon, M., & Ket, V. (2007). Ðoi moi, education and identity formation in contemporary Vietnam. Compare, 37(3), 345–363. https://doi.org/10.1080/03057920701330222
Selvik, K. (2021). Education activism in the Syrian civil war: Resisting by persisting. Comparative Education Review, 65(3), 399–418. https://doi.org/10.1086/714606
Shahbaz, H. (2021). Islamophobia in the mainstream. Council on American-Islamic Relations. https://www.cair.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/islamophobiainthemainstream.pdf
Shields, R. (2013). Globalization and international student mobility: A network analysis. Comparative Education Review, 57(4), 609–636. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/671752
Shih, K. (2015). Do international students crowd-out or cross-subsidize Americans in higher education? Journal of Public Economics, 156, 170–184. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JPUBECO.2017.10.003
Song, X. (2020). ‘Chinese students syndrome’ in Australia: Colonial modernity and the possibilities of alternative framing. Higher Education, 79, 605–618. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-019-00426-z
Suspityna, T. & Shalka, T. (2019). The Chinese international student as a (post)colonial other: An analysis of cultural representations of a US media discourse. Review of Higher Education, 42, 287–308. http://doi.org/10.1353/rhe.2019.0053
Takayama, K. (2018). Beyond comforting histories: The colonial/imperial entanglements of the International Institute, Paul Monroe, and Isaac L. Kandel at Teachers College, Columbia University. Comparative Education Review, 62(4), 459–481. https://doi.org/10.1086/699924
Tiffert, G. (2020). Compromising the knowledge economy: Authoritarian challenges to independent intellectual inquiry. National Endowment for Democracy. https://bit.ly/3AbWV8e
Trapani, J., & Gibbons, M. (2020). Academic research and development [White paper]. National Science Foundation. https://ncses.nsf.gov/pubs/nsb20202
Trilokekar, R. (2010). International education as soft power? The contributions and challenges of Canadian foreign policy to the internationalization of higher education. Higher Education, 59, 131–147. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10734-009-9240-y
Tromblay, D. (2018). Political influence operations: How foreign actors seek to shape U.S. policy making. Rowman & Littlefield.
Tsvetkova, N. (2008). International education during the Cold War: Soviet social transformation and American social reproduction. Comparative Education Review, 52(2), 199–217. https://doi.org/10.1086/528762
Uusimaki, L., & Garvis, S. (2017). Travelling academics: The lived experiences of academics moving across countries. Higher Education Research & Development, 36(1), 187–200. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07294360.2016.1178217
Van Noorden, R. (2022, May 30). The number of researchers with dual US-China affiliations is falling. Nature. https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-022-01492-7
Walker, C. (2016). The authoritarian threat: The hijacking of “soft power.” Journal of Democracy, 27(1), 49–63. https://doi.org/10.1353/jod.2016.0007
Walker, C., Kalathil, S., and Ludwig, J. (2018, September 14) Forget hearts and minds. Foreign Policy. https://foreignpolicy.com/2018/09/14/forget-hearts-and-minds-sharp-power/.
Walker, C., & Ludwig, J. (2017, November 16). The meaning of sharp power: How authoritarian states project influence. Foreign Affairs. https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/china/2017-11-16/meaning-sharp-power
Wee, S. (2019, February 21). China uses DNA to track its people, with the help of American expertise. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2019/02/21/business/china-xinjiang-uighur-dna-thermo-fisher.html
Weinstein, E. (2020, November 30). Mapping China’s sprawling efforts to recruit scientists. Defense One. https://www.defenseone.com/ideas/2020/11/mapping-chinas-sprawling-efforts-recruit-scientists/170373/.
Wilson, J. (2021). Chinese higher education and the quest for autonomy: One step backward. Journal of Comparative & International Higher Education, 13(2), 145–151. https://doi.org/10.32674/jcihe.v13i2.2049
Yamin, K. (2021, September 22). Taliban victory raises fears over campus radicalisation. University World News. https://www.universityworldnews.com/post.php?story=20210922160230826
Yang, R. (2010). Soft power and higher education: An examination of China’s Confucius Institutes. Globalisation, Societies and Education, 8(2), 235–245. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14767721003779746
Yemini, M. (2019). International research collaborations as perceived by top-performing scholars. Journal of Studies in International Education, 25(1), 3–18. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1028315319887392
Yuan, L. (2021, October 21). ‘Reversing gears’: China increasingly rejects English, and the world. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2021/09/09/business/china-english.html
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2022 Journal of Comparative & International Higher Education
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
The findings, interpretations, conclusions, and views expressed in Journal of Comparative and International Higher Education (JCIHE) are entirely those of the authors and should not be attributed in any manner to CIES, HESIG, or the sponsoring universities of the Editorial Staff. These works are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 4.0 License. Readers are free to copy, display, and distribute articles that appear in JCIHE as long as the work is attributed to the author(s) and JCIHE, it is distributed for non-commercial purposes only, and no alteration or transformation is made in the work. All other uses must be approved by the author(s) or JCIHE. By submitting a manuscript, authors agree to transfer without charge the following rights to JCIHE upon acceptance of the manuscript: first worldwide serial publication rights and the right for JCIHE to grant permissions as its editors judge appropriate for the redistribution of the article, its abstract, and metadata associated with the article in professional indexing and reference services.
