The Mediating Role of Colorblindness on Gender and Acceptability of Racial Microaggressions among Black People at a Historically White Institution
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.32674/93yh0h77Keywords:
microaggression, colorblindness, Historically white InstitutionAbstract
Chronic exposure to racial microaggressions (i.e., interpersonal race-based insults or invalidations that are often based stereotypes) may lead to traumatic stress symptoms, increased headaches, reduced self-efficacy, and fatigue among Black individuals. We were interested in examining differences in how Black students, faculty, and staff at a historically white institution rate racial microaggressions as acceptable, with particular focus on gender and colorblind racial attitudes as predictors. Using survey-based methods and mediation analysis, we found that colorblind racial attitudes mediate the relation between gender and ratings of acceptability. Implications for research and practice are discussed.
References
Alexander, M. (2010). The New Jim Crow: Mass incarceration in the age of colorblindness. The New York Press.
Allen, Q. (2010). Racial microaggressions: The schooling experiences of Black middle-class males in Arizona’s secondary schools. Journal of African American Males in Education, 1(2), 125-143. https://digitalcommons.chapman.edu/education_articles/24/
Banks, B. M., Cicciarelli, K. S. & Pavon, J. (2022). It offends us too! An exploratory analysis of high school-based microaggressions. Contemporary School Psychology, 26, 182–194. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40688-020-00300-1
Banks, B. M. & Horton, A. V. (2022). Perceptions of microaggressions and color-blind racial attitudes among college students. Journal of Underrepresented Minority Progress, 6 (1), 1-21 https://www.ojed.org/index.php/jump/article/view/4180/1807
Banks, B. M. & Landau, S. E. (2021). Cognitive effects of racial microaggressions directed at Black college women. The Journal of Negro Education, 90(1), 84-95. https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7709/jnegroeducation.90.1.0084
Banks, B. M., Torres González, N., Hynes, K., Donnelly, M. (2024). Factors predicting satisfaction with a microaggression training for school professionals. School Psychology Review, 53(4), 354-364. https://doi.org/10.1080/2372966X.2022.2109059
Barber, P. H., Hayes, T. B., Johnson, T. L., Márquez-Magaña, L., & 10,234 signatories. (2020). Systemic racism in higher education. Science, 369(6510), 1440-1441. https://www.science.org/doi/full/10.1126/science.abd7140?casa_token=upNLhbEX2GcAAAAA%3AI_1MQQAy5r-AimGUmgydOGLHn-NuJhoD_HD8eaiBZbXfBi3iCENn_awu73rtTLUoIypoH1mgQwjv0ss
Brown, R. A. (2021). Foundations of critical race theory: Migration from law to the social and applied sciences. In Critical Theories for School Psychology and Counseling (pp. 17-32). Routledge.
Campbell-Whatley, G. D., Wang, C., Toms, O., & Williams, N. (2015). Factors affecting campus climate: Creating a welcoming environment. New Waves-Educational Research and Development Journal, 18(2), 40-52. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1211418
Conyers, A., & Wright Fields, C. (2025). Paralyzing DEI: A critical analysis of anti-CRT legislation. Administrative Theory & Praxis, 1-19. https://doi.org/10.1080/10841806.2025.2449783
Crenshaw, K. (1989). Demarginalizing the intersection of race and sex: A Black feminist critique of antidiscrimination doctrine, feminist theory, and antiracist politics. University of Chicago Legal Forum,1989(1), 139-167. https://chicagounbound.uchicago.edu/uclf/vol1989/iss1/8/?utm_source=chicagounbound.u%20chicago.edu%2Fuclf%2Fvol1989%2Fiss1%2F8&utm_medium=PDF&utm_campaign=P%20DFCoverPages
Curry, T. (2008). Saved by the bell: Derrick Bell's racial realism as pedagogy. Philosophical Studies in Education, 39, 35-46. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1071987
Davis, P. L., Dickins, D., Higgs, J. L., & Reid, J. (2023). Microaggressions in the accounting academy: The Black Experience. Journal of Business Ethics, 192, 627-654. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-023-05539-1
DeCuir-Gunby, J. T., Johnson, O. T., Womble Edwards, C., McCoy, W. N., & White, A. M. (2020). African American professionals in higher education: Experiencing and coping with racial microaggressions. Race Ethnicity and Education, 23(4), 492-508. https://doi.org/10.1080/13613324.2019.1579706
Edwards, J. F. (2017). Color-blind racial attitudes: Microaggressions in the context of racism and white privilege. Administrative Issues Journal, 7(1), 5-18. https://doi.org/10.5929/2017.7.1.3
Fattoracci, E. S., & King, D. D. (2023). The need for understanding and addressing microaggressions in the workplace. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 18(4), 738-742. https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916221133825
Fritz, M. S., & MacKinnon, D. P. (2007). Required sample size to detect the mediated effect. Psychological Science, 18(3), 233-239. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01882.x
Gadson, C. A., & Lewis, J. A. (2022). Devalued, overdisciplined, and stereotyped: An exploration of gendered racial microaggressions among Black adolescent girls. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 69(1), 14-26. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000571
Gonlin, V., & Campbell, M. E. (2017). Is blindness contagious? Examining racial attitudes among People of Color with close interracial relationships. Sociological Perspectives, 60(5), 937-955. https://doi.org/10.1177/0731121417719698
Hall, J. M., & Fields, B. (2015). “It’s killing us!” Narratives of Black adults about microaggression experiences and related health stress. Global Qualitative Nursing Research, 2, 1-14 https://doi.org/10.1177%2F2333393615591569.
Harper, S. R. (2012). Race without racism: How higher education researchers minimize racist institutional norms. The Review of Higher Education, 36(1), 9-29. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1353/rhe.2012.0047
Hayes, A. F. (2017). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach. Guilford.
Helms, J. E., Nicolas, G., & Green, C. E. (2010). Racism and ethnoviolence as trauma: Enhancing professional training. Traumatology, 16(4), 53-62. https://doi.org/10.1177/1534765610389595
Kanter, J. W., Williams, M. T., Kuczynski, A. M., Manbeck, K. E., Debreaux, M., & Rosen, D. C. (2017). A preliminary report on the relationship between microaggressions against Black people and racism among White college students. Race and Social Problems, 9, 291-299. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1007/s12552-017-9214-0
Konold, T., Cornell, D., Shukla, K., & Huang, F. (2017). Racial/ethnic differences in perceptions of school climate and its association with student engagement and peer aggression. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 46, 1289-1303. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-016-0576-1
Ladson-Billings, G. (2020). Just what is critical race theory and what’s it doing in a nice field like education? In Critical race theory in education. Routledge.
Lewis, J. A., & Neville, H. A. (2015). Construction and initial validation of the Gendered Racial Microaggressions Scale for Black women. Journal of counseling psychology, 62(2), 289-302 https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/cou0000062
Lewis, J. A., Mendenhall, R., Harwood, S. A., & Browne Huntt, M. (2013). Coping with gendered racial microaggressions among Black women college students. Journal of African American Studies, 17, 51-73. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12111-012-9219-0
Lewis, J. A., Mendenhall, R., Ojiemwen, A., Thomas, M., Riopelle, C., Harwood, S. A., & Browne Huntt, M. (2021). Racial microaggressions and sense of belonging at a historically white university. American Behavioral Scientist, 65(8), 1049-1071. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764219859613
MacKinnon, D. P., Lockwood, C. M., & Williams, J. (2004). Confidence limits for the indirect effect: Distribution of the product and resampling methods. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 39(1), 99-128 https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1207/s15327906mbr3901_4
McDougal, S., Collier, T., Lewis, L., & Thomas, J. M. (2024). Black campus climate: Towards a liberatory and equitable Black campus experience. Journal of Black Studies, 55(1), 3-24. https://doi.org/10.1177/00219347231207061
McIntosh, K., Girvan, E. J., McDaniel, S. C., Santiago-Rosario, M. R., St. Joseph, S., Fairbanks Falcon, S., ... & Bastable, E. (2021). Effects of an equity-focused PBIS approach to school improvement on exclusionary discipline and school climate. Preventing School Failure. Alternative Education for Children and Youth, 65(4), 354-361. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/spq0000466
Mekawi, Y., & Todd, N. R. (2018). Okay to say? Initial validation of the Acceptability of Racial Microaggressions Scale. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 24(3), 346. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/cdp0000201
Mekawi, Y., Todd, N. R., & Blevins, E. J. (2021). Reducing acceptability of racial microaggressions using online videos: The role of perspective-taking and white guilt. Journal of Diversity in Higher Education,16(6), 759-768. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/dhe0000365
Moody, A. T., & Lewis, J. A. (2019). Gendered racial microaggressions and traumatic stress symptoms among Black women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 43(2), 201-214. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1177/0361684319828288
Morales, E. (2021). “Beasting” at the battleground: Black students responding to racial microaggressions in higher education. Journal of Diversity in Higher Education, 14(1), 72. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/dhe0000168
Muñoz, S. M., & Vigil, D. (2018). Interrogating racist nativist microaggressions and campus climate: How undocumented and DACA college students experience institutional legal violence in Colorado. Journal of Diversity in Higher Education, 11(4), 451-466. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/dhe0000078
Nadal, K. L., Griffin, K. E., Wong, Y., Hamit, S., & Rasmus, M. (2014). The impact of racial microaggressions on mental health: Counseling implications for clients of color. Journal of Counseling & Development, 92(1), 57-66. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1002/j.1556-6676.2014.00130.x
Neville, H. A., Coleman, M. N., Falconer, J. W., & Holmes, D. (2005). Color-blind racial ideology and psychological false consciousness among African Americans. Journal of Black Psychology, 31(1), 27-45. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1177/0095798404268287
Neville, H. A., Lilly, R. L., Duran, G., Lee, R. M., & Browne, L. (2000). Construction and initial validation of the Color-Blind Racial Attitudes Scale (CoBRAS). Journal of Counseling Psychology, 47(1), 59-70. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0022-0167.47.1.59
Ogunyemi, D., Clare, C., Astudillo, Y. M., Marseille, M., Manu, E., & Kim, S. (2020). Microaggressions in the learning environment: A systematic review. Journal of Diversity in Higher Education, 13(2), 97-119. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/dhe0000107
O'Keefe, V. M., Wingate, L. R., Cole, A. B., Hollingsworth, D. W., & Tucker, R. P. (2015). Seemingly harmless racial communications are not so harmless: Racial microaggressions lead to suicidal ideation by way of depression symptoms. Suicide and Life‐Threatening Behavior, 45(5), 567-576. https://doi.org/10.1111/sltb.12150
Pena-Shaff, J. B., Bessette-Symons, B., Tate, M., & Fingerhut, J. (2019). Racial and ethnic differences in high school students’ perceptions of school climate and disciplinary practices. Race Ethnicity and Education, 22(2), 269-284. https://doi.org/10.1080/13613324.2018.1468747
Pierce, C., & Barbour, F. B. (1970). The Black seventies. Porter Sargent.
Pittman, C. T. (2012). Racial microaggressions: The narratives of African American faculty at a predominantly White university. Journal of Negro Education, 81(1), 82-92. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.7709/jnegroeducation.81.1.0082
Preacher, K. J., & Hayes, A. F. (2004). SPSS and SAS procedures for estimating indirect effects in simple mediation models. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 36, 717-731. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.3758/BF03206553
Rankin, S., & Reason, R. (2008). Transformational Tapestry Model: A comprehensive approach to transforming campus climate. Journal of Diversity in Higher Education, 1(4), 262-274. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/a0014018
Reid, L. D., & Radhakrishnan, P. (2003). Race matters: The relation between race and general campus climate. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 9(3), 263-275. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/1099-9809.9.3.263
Robinson-Perez, A. (2021). ‘The heaviest thing for me is being seen as aggressive’: the adverse impact of racial microaggressions on Black male undergraduates’ mental health. Race Ethnicity and Education, 27(5), 680–700. https://doi.org/10.1080/13613324.2021.1969902
Rollock, N. (2021). “I would have become wallpaper had racism had its way”: Black female professors, racial battle fatigue, and strategies for surviving higher education. Peabody Journal of Education, 96(2), 206-217. https://doi.org/10.1080/0161956X.2021.1905361
Sanchez, M. E. (2019). Perceptions of campus climate and experiences of racial microaggressions for Latinos at Hispanic-serving institutions. Journal of Hispanic Higher Education, 18(3), 240-253. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1177/1538192717739351
Sandoval, R. S., Afolabi, T., Said, J., Dunleavy, S., Chatterjee, A., & Ölveczky, D. (2020). Building a tool kit for medical and dental students: Addressing microaggressions and discrimination on the wards. MedEdPORTAL, 16, https://doi.org/10.15766%2Fmep_2374-8265.10893.
Shirley, E. L., & Cornell, D. G. (2012). The contribution of student perceptions of school climate to understanding the disproportionate punishment of African American students in a middle school. School Psychology International, 33(2), 115-134. https://doi.org/10.1177/0143034311406815
Simien, E. M., & Clawson, R. A. (2004). The intersection of race and gender: An examination of Black feminist consciousness, race consciousness, and policy attitudes. Social Science Quarterly, 85(3), 793-810. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0038-4941.2004.00245.x
Sissoko, D. R. G., Lewis, J. A., & Nadal, K. L. (2023). It’s more than skin-deep: Gendered Racial Microaggressions, skin tone satisfaction, and traumatic stress symptoms among Black women. Journal of Black Psychology, 49(2), 127-152. https://doi.org/10.1177/00957984221137957
Smith, W. A., Allen, W. R., & Danley, L. L. (2007). “Assume the position... you fit the description” psychosocial experiences and racial battle fatigue among African American male college students. American Behavioral Scientist, 51(4), 551-578. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764207307742
Smith, W. A., Hung, M., & Franklin, J. D. (2011). Racial battle fatigue and the miseducation of Black men: Racial microaggressions, societal problems, and environmental stress. Journal of Negro Education, 80(1), 63-82. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ942380
Smith, W. A., Mustaffa, J. B., Jones, C. M., Curry, T. J., & Allen, W. R. (2016). ‘You make me wanna holler and throw up both my hands!’: Campus culture, Black misandric microaggressions, and racial battle fatigue. International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, 29(9), 1189-1209. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1080/09518398.2016.1214296
Solórzano, D. G., & Huber, L. P. (2020). Racial microaggressions: Using critical race theory to respond to everyday racism. Teachers College Press.
Solórzano, D., Ceja, M., & Yosso, T. (2000). Critical race theory, racial microaggressions, and campus racial climate: The experiences of African American college students. Journal of Negro Education, 69(1-2), 60-73. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2696265
Sue, D. W., Capodilupo, C. M., & Holder, A. (2008). Racial microaggressions in the life experience of Black Americans. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 39(3), 329-336. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0735-7028.39.3.329
Sue, D. W., Capodilupo, C. M., Torino, G. C., Bucceri, J. M., Holder, A., Nadal, K. L., & Esquilin, M. (2007). Racial microaggressions in everyday life: implications for clinical practice. American Psychologist, 62(4), 271-286. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0003-066X.62.4.271
Tatum, B. (1997). Why are all the Black kids sitting together in the cafeteria. Basic Books.
Thapa, A., Cohen, J., Guffey, S., & Higgins-D’Alessandro, A. (2013). A Review of school climate research. Review of Educational Research, 83(3), 357-385. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654313483907
Todd, A. R., Thiem, K. C., & Neel, R. (2016). Does seeing faces of young black boys facilitate the identification of threatening stimuli? Psychological Science, 27(3), 384-393. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1177/0956797615624492
Voight, A., Hanson, T., O’Malley, M., & Adekanye, L. (2015). The racial school climate gap: Within-school disparities in students’ experiences of safety, support, and connectedness. American Journal of Community Psychology, 56, 252-267. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10464-015-9751-x
Ward, L. M., Bridgewater, E. E., & Overstreet, N. M. (2023). Media use and Black emerging adults’ acceptance of Jezebel and Sapphire stereotypes. Journal of Media Psychology, 35(5), 256-267. https://awspntest.apa.org/doi/10.1027/1864-1105/a000390
Williams, M. G., & Lewis, J. A. (2019). Gendered Racial Microaggressions and depressive symptoms among Black women: A moderated mediation model. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 43(3), 368-380. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684319832511
Williams, M. T. (2020). Microaggressions: Clarification, evidence, and impact. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 15(1), 3-26. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691619827499
Williams, M. T., Kanter, J. W., Peña, A., Ching, T. H., & Oshin, L. (2020). Reducing microaggressions and promoting interracial connection: The racial harmony workshop. Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science, 16, 153-161. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1016/j.jcbs.2020.04.008
Wilson, J. P., Hugenberg, K., & Rule, N. O. (2017). Racial bias in judgments of physical size and formidability: From size to threat. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 113(1), 59-80. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/pspi0000092
Wise, A. (2021). Karen is not a slur: The mediating effect of white privilege awareness on color-blind racial attitudes and microaggression perception. Illinois State University. https://www.proquest.com/docview/2557838527?pq-origsite=gscholar&fromopenview=true&sourcetype=Dissertations%20&%20Theses